Context and study rationale

Despite global progress in increasing access to schooling, the world is still facing a learning crisis. More than one in two children in low- and middle-income countries are in ‘learning poverty’, unable to read and understand a simple text by the end of primary school age. The COVID-19 crisis is expected to further amplify the learning crisis.

Teacher absenteeism is one the most troubling obstacles on the path toward universal access to learning opportunities at school. Studies have found that teacher absenteeism is particularly prevalent in certain parts of Africa. A World Bank study estimates that between 15 and 45 per cent of all primary school teachers in seven sub-Saharan African countries are absent from school and between 23 and 57 per cent are absent from class on any given day.

While Guinea-Bissau has not administered or taken part in regional or international efforts to systematically monitor and assess the rates of teacher absenteeism, the issue is noted in the 2017–2025 Education Sector Plan. The Time to Teach study seeks to fill this important knowledge gap and support the Ministry of National Education and Higher Education (MENES) in its efforts to strengthen the teacher’s role in school to increase their time on task.

Existing literature on teacher absenteeism in Guinea-Bissau

The recently published report from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) presented parents’ reports on the degree of this problem in the country. In the 12 months prior to the visit, 42.5 per cent of children were unable to attend class due to school closure or teacher absence. Of these children, 62.9 per cent missed school due to teacher strike and 46.8 per cent due to teacher absence. Taken together, this meant that in the previous year, teacher absence or strike had caused around a third of the country’s children to miss school.

A higher proportion of children in rural areas had missed school due to teacher strikes or absence compared to urban areas. Nationally, children in public schools were much more likely to experience loss of school days due to teacher strikes compared to children in private schools.

Widespread teacher strikes occurred frequently and lasted months. In the 2016–2017 school year, for example, almost half of teaching days were lost due to strike. The 2018–2019 school year ended up with only five out of nine months of attendance due to the combination of strikes and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Study objectives

The principal objective of the Time to Teach study is to generate and collate empirical evidence on the various types and determinants of primary school teacher absenteeism in Guinea-Bissau and to provide potential recommendations for improving teacher attendance rates.

More specifically, the study aims to understand the various forms of primary school teacher absenteeism and assess their prevalence in different regions, types of schools and settings; explore the issue from a systemic perspective; detect gaps in teacher policy and policy implementation; identify promising practices; and increase awareness among national education policy makers.

Definitions, data and methods

For learning to occur, teachers need to: (1) be in school; (2) be punctual; (3) be in the classroom; and (4) spend sufficient time on task. The Time to Teach study introduces a multi-dimensional concept of teacher absenteeism that recognizes four distinct forms of teacher absence.

The study adopts the explanatory model of Guerrero et al. (2013), which examines the impact of community, school and teacher factors on teacher attendance, with an important modification that consists of adding two further groups of variables operating on the ‘national’ and the ‘subnational’ levels.

In total, 20 primary schools were purposely selected based on location, governance and rurality. At each school, in-depth interviews were carried out with the head teacher, three teachers, and a member of the school committee. A focus group discussion was also conducted with students. A teacher survey was administered to all teachers who were at school on the day of the visit (180). Overall, 339 individuals participated in the study.

Findings

How frequently are teachers absent?

The most common form of absence reported by surveyed teachers was absence from school, with 26 per cent of teachers experiencing this once a week or more. This was closely followed by reduced time on task (23 per cent), absence from class (22 per cent) and late arrival or early departure from school (21 per cent).

There were significant differences between teachers in different locations and school types. Teachers in rural areas were less likely to report experiencing all types of absences regularly. Compared to the 29 per cent of urban teachers who reported being absent from class at least weekly, only 11.5 per cent of teachers in rural areas experienced this regularly.

Absence levels also varied by school type. Teachers in self-managed schools were less likely to report regular absence from class and reduced time on task compared to their colleagues in public schools. The most common reason for being absent from school and arriving late/departing early was health.

A significant variation in reasons could be seen between different school types. Most public-school teachers reported strikes as a main reason for being absent for school, while less than one-fifth of teachers in private or self-managed schools did so. With regard to absence from the classroom, the reasons most frequently raised were administrative causes, closely followed by official school business, health, and lack of pupils.

What factors are associated with teacher attendance?

National factors

Teacher remuneration and incentives

The average teacher salary in Guinea-Bissau was significantly lower than that in comparable African countries. Surveyed teachers in private community schools reported receiving significantly lower levels of monthly salary compared to their counterparts in public and self-managed schools. However, teachers in private community schools were more likely to be satisfied with their salary as a teacher.

Several interviewees linked delays in salary payments to attendance, especially those in public schools. Very few teachers reported receiving any form of additional monetary or non-monetary incentives in addition to their base salary.

A significant variation in reasons could be seen between different school types. Most public-school teachers reported strikes as a main reason for being absent for school, while less than one-fifth of teachers in private or self-managed schools did so. With regard to absence from the classroom, the reasons most frequently raised were administrative causes, closely followed by official school business, health, and lack of pupils

Teachers’ unions and organized strikes

Strikes were among the top reasons for absence by teachers in the public sector. More than half of public school teachers surveyed nominated strikes as one of the top three reasons they had been absent from school. This issue is interlinked with that of delayed salary payments.

In addition to strikes directly impacting teacher absence, strikes were also reported to reduce teacher attendance more indirectly. During periods of strikes, some teachers were absent even on teaching days. Several interviewees attributed this to lower student attendance during strikes, with teachers reluctant to come into school to teach only small groups of children.

Subnational factors

Subnational monitoring and accountability systems

Although two-thirds of surveyed teachers reported that school inspectors visited their schools regularly, less than a third reported that they “motivated and inspired school staff”, “discouraged teacher absenteeism” or “frequently sanctioned teacher absenteeism”. During interviews, head teachers were more positive than teachers in discussing the role of inspectors.

Teacher training and professional learning

Surveyed teachers who reported that they had the knowledge and skills to teach well were also less likely to report regular absences from class. This highlights the importance of training. Unfortunately, it was not possible to analyse the relationship between teachers’ qualifications or level of training with attendance due to data limitations.

Community factors

Community engagement, monitoring and accountability

Overall, 70 per cent of surveyed teachers believed that within their communities, teachers were respected and their work recognized. Just over half agreed that most parents appreciated the value of education and encouraged pupils’ attendance. These patterns, however, were driven by considerable differences according to school location and type.

Most notably, fewer than 30 per cent of public-school teachers in rural areas felt respected by their community and only 5 per cent believed that parents appreciated the value of education. The community’s financial involvement in self-managed schools was reflected in greater engagement and more accountability among teachers and the school to their community.

However, the option of becoming self-managed can perpetuate the socio-economic gap between communities that can afford fees and those that cannot. Parental and community engagement do not rely only on financial capacity. Some interviewees reported in-kind contributions from the community and involvement in monitoring school activities.

Overall, 70 per cent of surveyed teachers believed that within their communities, teachers were respected and their work recognized. Just over half agreed that most parents appreciated the value of education and encouraged pupils’ attendance. These patterns, however, were driven by considerable differences according to school location and type

School factors

School type and employment in more than one school

Absence levels varied greatly depending on the type of school, with teachers in schools under self-management reporting the lowest absence levels. This difference could be attributed to the ability of self-managed schools to raise money for teacher salaries and the stronger oversight played by the community.

More than one in four surveyed teachers reported that they were also teaching at another school. Despite some observations about teachers prioritizing work in private schools, there was little difference in the reported rate of regular absence among teachers who taught in more than one school and those who taught at only one school.

School leadership, culture and policies

School leadership practices play a role in incentivising teacher attendance. Teachers who agreed that “the head teacher is always at school” were less likely to be regularly absent and less likely to regularly arrive late or depart early. Those who agreed that “the head teacher always records teacher absences” were less likely to report regularly experiencing reduced time on task.

Interviews uncovered examples of strong leadership influencing teacher attendance. Teachers reported low rates of regular absences and spoke of different ways that head teachers can model, monitor and incentivize teacher attendance. Administrative workload and the expectation of teaching when student attendance is low were also raised as factors influencing attendance.

Teacher factors

Personal motivation and professional satisfaction

Professional satisfaction is high among surveyed teachers, with more than four in five agreeing with the statement “I am satisfied with my job”. There was a relationship between job satisfaction and late arrival/departures, absence from class, and reduced time on task. Those who were not satisfied were more likely to report being regularly unpunctual, absent from class, and experiencing reduced time on task.

School leadership practices play a role in incentivising teacher attendance. Teachers who agreed that “the head teacher is always at school” were less likely to be regularly absent and less likely to regularly arrive late or depart early. Those who agreed that “the head teacher always records teacher absences” were less likely to report regularly experiencing reduced time on task

The complex dynamic between satisfaction, motivation and salary likely plays a role. Several interviewees noted that teachers were motivated not only by money, but that salary plays a role in their ability to fulfil their job.

Health and family responsibilities

Health and family responsibilities were among the most frequently named reasons for being absent and arriving late/departing early. Interviewees linked these reasons to occasional absences rather than regular occurrences. Specific reasons included teachers’ own health challenges, health of family members, and compassionate leave.

Implications on policy

Cross-sectoral collaborations to address employment conditions

Delayed salary payment is a frequent source of teacher strikes. Broader cross-sectoral work is needed to improve financial arrangements and systems, and increase transparency. The MENES should continue working with the Ministry of Economy and Finance to improve financial systems and processes.

The government should work with development partners on interim measures, such as loan schemes, to ensure on-time teacher salary payments. Working with the Ministry of Civil Service is also needed to ensure clarity around employment conditions, including consulting with broader education stakeholders in policy formulation and implementation.

Health and family responsibilities were among the most frequently named reasons for being absent and arriving late/departing early. Interviewees linked these reasons to occasional absences rather than regular occurrences. Specific reasons included teachers’ own health challenges, health of family members, and compassionate leave

Community engagement

The strong role that the Bissau-Guinean community has played in ensuring the continued delivery of education is an asset. The characteristics and practices of self-managed schools that lead to increased teacher attendance should be harnessed across public schools and other forms of private schools.

The government should examine ways to support community engagement without the requirement of financial contribution from parents. The role of school management committees should be clarified and formalized, including their involvement in monitoring teacher attendance and performance.

UNICEF Guinea-Bissau and the MENES should consider incorporating encouragement or incentives to monitor teacher attendance as part of their new GPE-funded conditional cash transfer program.

Teacher training

Adequate training for teachers plays a role in attendance by improving teachers’ self-efficacy. The total capacity of teacher training institutions should continue to be monitored, as well as their regional distribution. With much attention on supporting greater connectivity and remote learning opportunities, there is an opportunity to identify the role remote learning could play in teacher training.

Support for effective school leadership

This study found evidence supporting the role school leadership has in supporting teacher attendance. Mechanisms to ensure that head teachers can develop the necessary skills to lead their schools effectively should be established. The requirements of the role should be clarified in policy and include expectations of modelling attendance as well as monitoring, recording, and discouraging teacher absences.

Continuity of learning during school closures

Extended school closures have been long-standing occurrences in Guinea-Bissau, even before the COVID-19 pandemic. The MENES should make recorded radio and television lessons available for deployment during future school closures. These may also be distributed via USB or other physical means to community leaders.

The MENES should engage and train teachers in incorporating these resources during in-school teaching where possible. The MENES and development partners should consider trialling mobile phone support to home learning, initially tested in the context of reopened schools to support students in closing the learning gap.